Computer Networks and Operating systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Computer Networks and Operating systems - Essay Example RFC-1305 specifies the NTP Version 3 protocol machine in terms of events, states, transition unctions and actions and, in addition, engineered algorithms to improve the timekeeping quality and mitigate among several synchronization sources, some of which may be faulty. To achieve accuracies in the low milliseconds over paths spanning major portions of the Internet of today, these intricate algorithms, or their functional equivalents, are necessary. However, in many cases accuracies in the order of significant fractions of a second are acceptable. In such cases, simpler protocols such as the Time Protocol, have been used for this purpose. These protocols SNTP has been described by Network Working Group in their Request for Comments: 1305 specifications. It is a simplified version of Network Time Protocol for servers and clients. It is particularly useful for the client and server machines which were using NTP version 3 to shift over internet and World Wide Web. SNTP is designed to operate in a dedicated server configuration including an integrated radio clock. SNTP protocols can be used to fetch time from NTP server to synchronize client subnet machines. They can not be used to synchronize time between their peer client machines of the network. The first reply received by the SNTP client is used for subsequent unicast requests from designated server and client stops responding to other server replies. Other than the selection of address in the request, the operations of anycast and unicast clients are identical. Requests are normally sent at intervals from 64 s to 1024 s, depending on the frequency tolerance of the client clock and the required accuracy. A unicast or anycast client initializes the NTP message header, sends the request to the server and strips the time of day from the Transmit Timestamp field of the reply. For this purpose, all of the NTP header fields shown above can be set to 0, except the first octet and (optional) Transmit Timestamp

Strategic HRM and how it is identified Case Study

Strategic HRM and how it is identified - Case Study Example External drivers have a direct impact on the internal needs of the company. It should be mentioned that the external and internal factors such as structure, people, technology and task are all interdependent. In Lafarge, planned organizational change is triggered by the need to respond to new challenges and opportunities of the external environment, and in anticipation of the need to cope with potential future problems. The external drivers for organizational changes involved international expansion and globalization of the industry. To some extent, external change drivers are caused by innovation rapid technological changes and innovations proposed by competitors within the industry. "The industry is also investing in alternative activities in order to protect itself from the economic impacts of business cycles" (Case Study). For Lafarge, the planned change represents an intentional attempt to improve, in some important way, the operational effectiveness of the company. The basic underlying objectives can be seen in general terms as: modifying the behavioral patterns of members of Lafarge; and improving the ability of Lafarge to cope with continuous changes in its environment. External drivers include new industry and customers demands including "greater safety, comfort, and quality" (Case Study), internalization of business, consolidation of industries, a global supply chain and the Internet solutions. One of the major changes deals with the specification of goods which may be considered in terms of their design features and performance characteristics. Increased competition and market demands create a new business environment and force Lafarge to accommodate to changing economic and business conditions. Internal change drivers are caused by company's mission and strategic objectives, new policies and new vision of the company. The internal forces involve the policy of acquisition and development and need to improve labor skills, attitudes of employees and need to improve organizational performance. Workforce diversity creates a great challenge for Lafarge to accommodate its structure to new business environment. "The work environment was driven by a demand for operational excellence. The organization was restructured and streamlined, and over 100% more employees were added to the group through new acquisitions" (Case study). For Lafarge, it is important to have technically competent staff able to cope with complex tasks and work under pressure. External drivers cause a continual need for the process of staff development, and training. The usual methods of boosting performance - process rationalization and automation - haven't yielded the dramatic improvements for Lafarge need. In pa rticular, heavy investments in information technology have delivered disappointing results - largely because companies tend to use technology to mechanize old ways of doing business. The acquisition strategy forces the company to introduce a shared culture and values based on unique cultural traditions and international HR practices (Reed, 2001). Competitive Strategies The competitive positioning school of thought, based primarily on the work of Michael Porter (1980, 1985), stresses the importance of how the organization is positioned with respect to its competitive environment or

Cap And Trade Policy Economics Essay

Cap And Trade Policy Economics Essay The aim of this paper is to take a deeper look into the functioning of the European Unions emission trading system with the emphasis on economic and political facts and by analizing major problematic issues linked to it. The papers research question is focusing on the possible ways of amelioration of effectiveness of the European Unions present-day emission trading system. So that Which areas of the European Unions emission trading system are appearing to be the most problematic and hindering ones?. In this paper I am attempting to review both basic facts and problematic issues in order to conclude in a reasonable overview. 1.2. Introduction Today the European Union is one of the most environmental conscious actors on the international stage. By its cap-and-trade policy, which has reached serious CO2 and greenhouse gas emission reductions in most of the member states throughout the previous years, it has risen to be one of the most successful emission regulators. In both Phase I ( January 2005-December 2007) and Phase II (January 2008 December 2012) there have been serious carbon emission reductions in the European Unions area. In Phase I. only on the lower prise of 40 euros per tonne of carbon gases, and in Phase II. on the higher price of 100 euros per tonne.  [1]  By giving a price to carbon emissions (tCO2e) the governments since the Kyoto Protocol (1997) are able to check their emissions and air pollution even on the balance sheet. Nonetheless, giving a price to emissions is also helping to give air pollution a kind of value and also interest in the reduction of it. Nevertheless, there are still major unsolved and doubted issues on todays Phase II.s effectiveness and on the future success of Phase III. being launched in the very beginning of 2013. These doubts are created by serious problems within the European Unions cap-and-trade policy, and the problems are mostly depending on wrong economic models and practices used, moreover on the lack of monitoring of the emission trading market. Basically it is the European Commission, monitoring all emission credit trading processes is attempting to ensure all member states, that all transfers are legal and that there are no abuses on the European carbon trading markets. 1.3. Arguements on the Europen Unions carbon trading scheme As having a classical cap-and-trade system, the European Union is basically focusing on the reduction of CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions. Most likely by its cap-and trade policy now affecting about 45% of CO2 and less than 40% of greenhouse gas emissions of the European Union. Within the CAT transportation, agriculture and public services are not included, yet. And most possibly will not be included in the near future.  [2]  The system of carbon trading is quite simple. Installations are receiving emission credits -where 1 credit is equal to 1 metric-tone of CO2 from their member states government. If the installations run out of their emission credits, they can purchase it from other governments of companies. On the contrary, if they have more emission credits than as much they need, they can sell their credits for other installations. By buying emission credits, the installations are trying to reduce their ecological footprint, however this is only a theoretical reduction and not a real one. The stock exchange of carbon credits is a system where these credits can be sold privately or on the international market on a market price. By giving a market price to carbon credits, the sellings and buyings can appear on the balance sheet. Right now it is highly critisised that the European Unions emission trading system gives a price to CO2 and greenhouse gases making it a simple matter of economic interest instead of giving to it an environmental emphasis.  [3]   The European Unions energy policy is now focusing on the major issues of climate change, global warning and higher energy prices. Its objective is to eliminate CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions in order to reduce the possibility of temperature rise above 2 C.  [4]  However, this aim of reducing the possibility of temperature rise seems more or less an impossible mission as the European Union is not the only polluter of air in the world. China and the United States of America mean a very serious threatment of emissions the USA havent even ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and so the reduction of European CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions seems more to be like pouring water into a leaky bucket, making it very difficult for the European Union to work for a cleaner environment. Looking further, by the Action Plan, the European Union is now willing to eliminate even more its emissions. The objective is to reduce todays greenhouse gas emissions by 30 % by 2020 throughout its new strategy within the Energy Policy.  [5]  After the crisis of 2008 in my opinion such serious and enormous objectives can be reached on a very hard way or cannot be reached at all, as right now the economic development is much more important for the member states than the cut of further emissions. The European Union has a tradition using economic instruments to treat external costs as inner ones in order to prepare the market to answer with limited costs. So, in the future the emission trading system of the European Union remains a crucial part within the Energy Policy as it is highly contributing to stimulate chnages in the usage and generation of energy.  [6]  As a single economic explanation, we can state that in general in a small open market  [7]  firms are looking for the minimalisation of their costs throughout production. In a market like this, emission taxes or other regulations like emission intensity restrictions are forcing firms to pollute by counting and paying the fee per unit or purchase pollution rights. By this practice the governments target of emission can be realizable.  [8]   The European Unions green taxation, or so-called Pigou taxation process is the most market-friendly way in order to eliminate the member states CO2 and greenhouse gas emissions. As I have mentioned it earlier, it is crucial to internalize externalities to solve major market failures. The Pigou tax  [9]  serves as a main external cost integrated into market prices.  [10]   Main advantages of the carbon taxation are: 1. Average price for all member states, helping firms to fix their prices of emission 2. Giving a price for emissions develops low-emission technologies 3. Carbon taxation can seriously eliminate emissions by supporting shift towards greener technologies Main disadvantages of the carbon taxation are: 1. Carbon taxation makes it difficult to follow emission reductions 2. Carbon taxes can generate high administartive and implementational costs.  [11]   It is very important to highlight, that carbon taxation and the selling of carbon credits are not equal. they are both forming an important role within the reduction of emission, however the cap-and-trade system of the European Union is using carbon credits since the Kyoto protocol in 1997. Taxes can be set by the governments and so they can regulate taxes by their preferences and needs and so it is very difficult to get a clear picture of carbon reductions. Nevertheless carbon creditscannot be regulated on such a strick way like taxes and so emission trading is able to become a single market operation. OECD in its paper, called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is focusing ont he combination of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Combining cap-and-trade policies with other instruments and policy fields could seem as a solution in order to achieve additional serious emission reductions. On the contrary, this would result in increase of emisssions from the other given areas, too. Moreover, within cap-and-trade policy more sources would be availabe for further emissions. So, when a cap-and-trade system comes to life, the combination of this policy with other instruments is useless, as further reductions in the emission of CO2 and greenhouse gases will not occur.  [12]   A very well designed cap-and-trade system could solve both environmental and economic problems within the member states of the European Union. Nevertheless, as a major mistake, those policy makers of the member states combining emission trading policies with other instruments in order to reduce costs and emission, may concentrate too much on todays environmental outcomes, without focusing on future reductions.  [13]   It is very important to note, that the European Union had a significant role in the set up of both the Kyoto Protocol and the Rio+20 Conference. At Kyoto, the member states have agreed to cut their emissions with comparing to the 1990 levels by 2012.  [14]  These are also representing the environmental consciousness of the European Union which is ready to eliminate emissions by signing international environmental treaties. However, sadly in practice the European unions cap-and-trade practice. State intervention is a major problem. Basicly those are the governments getting the possibility to mandate end-of-pipe technologies in order to help the reduction of the cost of the emission reduction processes. Nevertheless, this method has a lack of information towards the states, and additionally the intake of new technologies can be super expensive for firms and enterprises. Moreover, many times the state enforces the adaption of low-cost emission technologies even if those are found too pricy by the enterprises. As the price of the shift to the new technologies, it would be more pricy than profitable, the firms are counting competitveness and would deny to use the technologies. However, in this case innovation is found much more important, than competitiveness for the state.  [15]   1.4. Conclusion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Unfortunately, the European emissions trading scheme designed to help member states meet their commitments turned out to be a washout.  [16]   So far, it is clear that the European Union is exporting Co2 and greenhouse gases and importing land and water. We are consuming much more, than what we have and this results in mass pollution of the entire environment. Most possibly we are already late in order to prevent the effects of climate-change within the European Union, and emission trading policies, especially in this form, where member states can easily trade their emission rights will not be enough effective. There shouldnt be hesitation within the decision making forums about the reform of the European Unions cap-and-trade policy, as in this form it is untenable. à ¶sszefoglalà ¡s a problà ©mà ¡knak christina kritikusan, sajà ¡t và ©lemà ©ny indoklà ¡ssal

college parties Essay -- essays research papers

College Parties   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ever since I’ve come to college my whole life has changed. Living on my own is fun but I miss being back home. I hate having to do my own laundry and clean my room, I miss my mom doing those things for me. I’ve made many new friends that I hang out with everyday and we’ve become extremely close. I think I like them so much because they remind me of my friends from back home. The work is also a lot harder than high school and it is very stressful. Once I finish all the work that I have to do I like to party to get my mind off of it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Our school is not a very big party school but when there are parties to go to they are usually pretty good. The party nights during the week are usually on Tuesday, Friday and Saturday. Usually the main party nights at college are on Thursdays but since our school is a suitcase school our main party night is Tuesday. The parties to go to are either in the village, Park Avenue or in the suites. The real good parties are at the basketball house and football house but they only have parties when they win, which isn’t very often.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The types of things that go on at these parties are fights, alcohol and drinking games, loud music, dancing, socializing, smoking, rape, drugs, sex, drunk driving, and police. When I got to my first party it was nothing like high school parties. There was so   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  &n...

An Analysis of Lord of the Flies by William Golding Essay

Savage vs. Civilized The main concern of Lord of the flies is the conflict between the two competing drives that all humans have; to live by the rules and act right or to defy the rules and act on ones desires. Meaning Savage vs. Civilized. William Golding associates the instinct of civilization with good and the instinct of savage with evil. In the story the character Ralph is the protagonist who represents civilized, leadership, and order. On the other hand Jack is the antagonist and represents savagery and the desire for power. William implies that people are much more prone to the instinct of savagery than the instinct of civilization, especially without authority. In the beginning of the story, the meetings that the group has are very civilized and everybody abides by the rules. They form a society that has a leader (Ralph) and have a symbol of authority, which is a conch shell. They all listen to Ralph and use the conch shell to talk during the meetings; making the meetings very civilized. In the beginning they all do their part whether it be watching the fire, building things, going hunting for food, or getting water, they all did their part. As the story goes on most of the kids start slacking and the jobs are not being done well; they are becoming more savage. For instance the fire goes out when a ship passes, there is not much water in the coconuts, and only 2 people build the last shelter. The kids can’t even have a civilized meeting, and the conch shell is not being put to use as it should be. During the meeting piggy says† What are we? Humans? Or animals? Or savages? What’s grownups going to think? Going off- hunting pigs- letting out fires- and now! † By piggy saying this, it shows that the kids really are acting like wild animals and little savages. They are no longer thinking before they are doing things and have no sense of control or authority. They are beginning to go wild and the instinct of savage is kicking in.

Compromising Development: the Language of Instruction Dilemma

Tayebwa Morris Compromising development: The Language of Instruction dilemma in Tanzania. Introduction Following release of the Tanzania 2012 Form IV results by the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training on February 18, the media and the general public have been frantically discussing the fact that up to 60 % of the students who sat last years’ ‘O' level final failed the exam. i This has once again raised a lot of concern in and around Tanzania from educators, parents and policy makers.Among many reasons given for the failure, that has in fact been increasing every year are factors like; shortage of quality teachers, poor infrastructure and study tools. The reason that stands out however, is the poor proficiency of secondary school students in English, the language of instruction. In fact studies have shown that the same students do much better in primary school where they are taught and examined in Kiswahili, the national language.The Tanzanian Dilemma Inspite of incessant advice by policy makers and educators for a complete adoption of Kiswahili as the only medium of instruction at all levels, the Tanzanian government has upheld the bilingual education system and English is continually used as a language of instruction for all post-primary school education. In fact early research agrees with the promotion of Kiswahili as the appropriate choice as a language of instruction.However, going by the advances of education worldwide where especially tertiary education is becoming more globalised, wouldn’t it be regressive to adopt a language of instruction that is limited to just one country? Unless we of course consider that the returns from quality secondary education would be sufficient for Tanzania without regarding the effect on tertiary education. Or maybe higher education would also have to adopt Kiswahili as a language of instruction.This is before we consider the feasibility of such a transformation most importantly in terms of pre sence and quality of secondary school and higher education tools such as curricula, textbooks, teaching guides and manuals and obviously teachers trained to instruct post – primary levels. Or maybe the country should take the bitter pill and adopt English as a language of instruction on all levels. In this paper, I will try to delve into previous research on this matter and find a relation etween the language of instruction and effect on developmental outcomes of Tanzania both in terms of human capital growth and general wellbeing of citizens. Does the language of instruction really matter? From the human capital rationale, language does matter. â€Å"Human capital† refers to the set of skills a person acquires mainly through education and training to aid his/her productivity and attain greater compensation in the labour market (Becker 1964).Proficiency in a language of instruction (reading, writing, oral expression) is a skill vital to the development of human capital . As explained by Chiswick and Miller (1995), the language skill â€Å"satisfies the three criteria that define human capital,† that is, the costs involved in the creation of language skills, the skills that serve a productive purpose relevant to economic activity in the labour market; and the fact that all that is embodied in a person. As demonstrated by Samuel O.Ortiz (2004) in his assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse students, language of instruction also determines the competence of students in relation to the improvement of their cognitive skills, a means and end to the means of quality education. By discussing cognitive skills and quality education, we get closer to the effect of language of instruction on the development of individuals and societies, both socio-economic and general well-being. According to Hanushek and Kim (1995) and Hanushek and Woessmann (2007), quality of education is a measure of labour force quality based on the cognitive skills att ained.Therefore, such big failure rates, and reports that most students failed to write anything in last year’s exam, and either resorted to cheating, writing funny verses and abuses spells a bad image for the Tanzanian education system and leaves us to wonder what kind skills are the students getting anyway. Undeniably, research over the years has shown that standards of English education are inadequate thus affecting the general performance of most post-primary students (Mlama and Matteru 1977, Criper and Dodd 1984, Roy-Campbell 1997, Martha Quorro (2013).In fact it was found that students perform much better under the medium of Swahili and that nearly 75 percent of teaching, especially in the early stages of secondary education, was being done in Swahili rather than English or sometimes with massive code switching involved (Rugemalira et al 1990). ii Students therefore receive a large part of their education in the local language yet assignments, tests and even national ex ams are written in English. This, as a result handicaps students with low proficiency and leads such to high failure rates.This goes on to not only affect the education system but the students as well. For example, after such failure, most students drop out of schools even without qualifications, girls are married off at an early age by parents who are not seeing direct returns from the education, boys resort to lower income jobs for survival and this ultimately also affects the motivation of other students to join secondary school. As a result, Tanzania has the lowest secondary school enrolment in the region (World Bank, 2009).The government has however ignored research findings and the sociolinguistic reality by maintaining a weak bilingual instruction format. It makes no sense teaching in a language that children are not understanding. In fact the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training has in the past proposed starting English as Language of Instruction from nursery school all through to tertiary education (MoEVT, 2009). Tangled in this predicament, there is also an inequality dimension.Studies have shown that many wealthy Tanzanian parents send their children to better performing private schools, as well as to schools in the neighbouring countries, in order to have their children exposed to English-medium education in primary school (Mazrui 1997, Cox and Jimenez 1991). In a country where there are better opportunities for the English proficient workforce, the foreign trained students consequently have more valuable capital and better potential to get better paying jobs and thus opportunities are still in the hands of the already privileged. The uncertain futureFrom the aforementioned studies, it is clear that adoption of Swahili as the language of instruction in secondary schools, will lead to better outcomes in terms of effective transfer of information, legibility, improved education and a more productive population. On the other hand, emphasis on English, just like in other neighbouring countries will likewise improve the skills needed to compete globally especially in tourism and other export-oriented investments, broaden other labour- market opportunities, and close the socioeconomic classes’ gap that exists between the English currently proficient labour force and the general public.In my opinion and as discussed by Batibo (1990) a bilingual system can still be maintained but the government will need to invest more in promoting the learning of English at pre- primary level to better prepare the students to the reality of an English post primary education. However as this paper has shown, even with a plethora of research on this matter, the Tanzanian government is faced with the dilemma of choosing a curriculum policy that should emphasize a well understood and better performing language or one that is used widely around the world especially in economic, scientific and technological circles.NOTES i The breakdowns b y divisions are as follows: division 1-1,641; division 2-6,453; division 3- 15,426; division 4103,327, and division 0-240,903. By gender for those who passed i. e. received divisions 1-3: girls =7, 178 and boys = 16, 342. That means 5. 6% of those who sat for this exam passed (divisions 1-3), it only when division 4 (the worst possible grade) is included that failure rate reduces to 60% otherwise with division 4 included, failure rate is actually 94. 4%. ii Code switching is the practice of alternating between two languages to ease communication.References Barro R (1999). Human Capital and Growth in Cross Country Regressions, Swedish Economic Policy Review, 6, 237-77. Barry R. Chiswick and Paul W. Miller (1995). The Endogeneity between Language and Earnings, Journal of Labor Economics, 13, 248. Batibo, H. M. (1990). English language teaching and learning in Tanzanian primary schools. Language in Education in Africa: A Tanzanian Perspective. Ed. C. M. Becker, Gary. (1964). Human Capi tal: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Cox, Donald and Emmanuel Jimenez. (1991). The Relative Effectiveness of Private and Public Schools: Evidence from Two Developing Countries. Journal of Development Economics 34:99-121. Criper, C. and William Dodd (1984). Report on the Teaching of English and its Use as a Medium of Instruction in Tanzania, ODA/ British Council. Education in Africa: A Tanzanian Perspective. Ed. C. M. Rubagumya. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters, 1990. Hanushek E and Kim D (1995), Schooling Labour Force Quality and Economic Growth, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 399, Cambridge, MA. Hanushek E and Woessmann L (2008). The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development, Journal of Economic Literature, 46, 607-668. Martha A. S. Qorro, (2013). Language of instruction in Tanzania: Why are research findings not heeded? International Review of Education Mazrui, Alamin. T he World Bank, the language question and the future of African education. Race and Class 38. 3 (1997): 35-48. Mlama, Penina na May Matteru (1977). Haja ya kutumia Kiswahili kufundishia elimu ya juu, a research report commissioned by BAKITA, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.MoEVT (2009). Sera ya Elimu na Mafunzo (2009), Rasimu ya I. Toleo Jipya, Juni, 2009. Ortiz O. Samuel, Comprehensive Assessment of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Student: A Systematic, Practical Approach for Non-discriminatory Assessment Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists. Qorro (eds. ): Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa. (LOITASA) Dar es Salaam: E & D Limited. pp. 149 – 170. Roy-Campbell, Zaline Makini and Martha. Qorro, (1997). The Language Crisis in Tanzania: the Myth of English versus Education, DSM: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers.Rubagumya, Casmir (2003). English medium primary schools in Tanzania: a new â€Å"linguistic market† in education? In: Brock-Utne, Birgit, Zubeida Desai and Martha Rubagumya. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters. Rugemalira, J. M, C. M. Rubagumya, M. K. Kapinga, A. F. Lwaitama and J. G. Tetlow. Reflections on recent developments in language policy in Tanzania. Language in World Bank, (2009) World Bank Indicators – Tanzania accessed on 15. 03. 2013 from http://www. tradingeconomics. com/tanzania/school-enrollment-secondary-femalepercent-gross-wb-data. html

Investigating the inhibition of copper sulphate between an enzyme and substrate Essays

Investigating the inhibition of copper sulphate between an enzyme and substrate Essays Investigating the inhibition of copper sulphate between an enzyme and substrate Essay Investigating the inhibition of copper sulphate between an enzyme and substrate Essay In this investigation I will be carrying out an experiment to see how the addition of copper sulphate to the reaction between hydrogen peroxide and carrots is effected. This is a simple model showing how inhibition (copper sulphate is inhibitor) takes place between an enzyme (carrot) and substrate (hydrogen Peroxide). It will most likely show the effect of a competitive inhibitor as the more inhibitor you add to the reaction between the enzyme and substrate, the slower the reaction between the substrate and enzyme will slow down. I will know how well the reaction (enzyme and substrate binding) is going by collecting the amount of gas (oxygen) given off in the reaction. Obviously if there is a lot of gas given off then the reaction will be faster than if the reaction is slow. I will be going through what my investigation is about and developing a prediction about my investigation. I will then go through some information about information and inhibition and tell you what I know about them. After that I will introduce you to my pre-tests and how I came about to choose the method that I used in the end. I will then talk about what I will need to take account for when doing my investigation, such things as what Ill need to carry out the investigation, what precautions I will take and what things will be done throughout the tests that I do. I will include tables and graphs to show my results and finally conclude my results and finish my investigation by evaluating how well my investigation went. Prediction I predict that when copper sulphate (inhibitor) is added to the hydrogen peroxide (substrate) and carrot (enzyme) it will make the reaction between the enzyme and substrate slower as the copper sulphate will inhibit the enzymes. I also predict that the copper sulphate is a competitive inhibitor otherwise if it were a non-competitive inhibitor the reaction between the substrate and enzyme would not affected in a way that there would hardly be a reaction. I predict that the more substrate there is then the more reaction (substrate binding onto enzymes) will take place. Background Knowledge From class work and essays I already know this information about enzymes:- Most Enzymes are proteins and can be described as catalysts. The majority if not every metabolic reaction which takes place within a living organism is catalysed by enzymes. Enzymes are globular proteins. Like all globular proteins, enzyme molecules are coiled into a specific three-dimensional shape with side chain hydrophilic R groups on the outside of the molecule. This ensures that the enzyme is soluble. Enzymes have a special feature and this is that they posses an active site. This is a region on the enzyme to which another molecule or molecules can bind onto it. This is the substrate of the enzyme. The shape of the specific shape allows the substrate to fit in just right. Also it is held by temporary bonds. This is called the enzyme-substrate complex as a simplified diagram on the next page shows. Each type of enzyme acts on a specific type of enzyme that the enzyme is fit to do as the shape of its active site has a specific shape that only allows that one type of substrate to fit in. The enzyme may catalyse a reaction causing the substrate molecule to split (2 or more) as shown in the diagram. Alternatively catalysing may cause a joining of two molecules. After this process the molecules leave the unchanged enzyme leaving it for another substrate molecule to go and bond onto it. There may be one specific substrate that fits into a specific enzymes active site but there is a possibility for another molecule very similar to the enzymes substrate which can also fit into the active site. This inhibits the enzymes function. This causes competition between the substrate and the enzyme to inhibit the enzyme. If there arent many Inhibitors present then the binding of substrate to enzymes wont be affected but if the substrate was low in concentration compared to the inhibitor then the less likely the substrates will occupy the enzymes active site. This is known as competitive inhibition. In other cases an inhibitor can occupy an enzymes site permanently and therefore will not allow a substrate to bind onto the active site. This is known as non-competitive inhibition and is irreversible. Another form of non-competitive inhibition is when a bacteria can bind somewhere else on the enzyme rather than on the active site. This may result in the enzyme becoming mishapened and disrupts the enzymes arrangement of hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Using this simple table you can decipher whether or not if an inhibitor is a competitive or non-competitive inhibitor. Source for background knowledge: Biology 1 (Cambridge, endorsed by OCR). Preliminary Work Before I began my actual investigation I had to decipher what apparatus I would need and what the best method of getting a fair test would be. There was an option of using a glass syringe to collect the gas given off or to use a measuring cylinder in a bucket of water. I also had to comprehend how much carrot gratings and hydrogen peroxide I would require. The method I chose to test out first was the one with the measuring cylinder as I had the notion that not much gas would be given off. I set up my apparatus as shown in the diagram: After deciphering how much hydrogen peroxide (ml) and carrot grating (weighed in grams) I would need I carried out the experiment. At first the reaction went hastily so I tried different amounts of carrot grating and hydrogen peroxide and the results turned out to be similar to the first test. There was clearly too much hydrogen peroxide and carrot gratings as substrate molecules were binding onto the enzyme at a quick rate because a lot of oxygen was being given off and also some of the hydrogen peroxide made its way into the bung. After some deliberation I decided to opt for the glass syringe method as it seemed to be more appropriate. So again like before I set up the equipment as shown in the diagram on the following page: When carrying out the experiment using this method I found that now that there was a larger area for the oxygen to go into, there wasnt much gas being collected into the glass syringe so this time I had to use more carrot gratings and hydrogen peroxide. I then, after a couple of tries to get an adequate amount of both the hydrogen peroxide and carrot gratings, determined how much of both the carrot gratings and hydrogen peroxide I needed. I found that using 5ml hydrogen peroxide to each gram of carrot gratings would give me a fairly good test. I went with using 4g of carrot gratings and 20ml hydrogen peroxide. This was going to be used as my control for the investigation. I will later add copper sulphate, which acts as an inhibitor. Also I found that I was using 1% copper sulphate solutions so I decided to use different concentrations in my investigation. I chose to use these concentrations to test inhibition: 1%, 0. 8%, 0. 6%, 0. 4%, 0. 2% and 0% as the control (with the addition of water). Finally I then decided to use 15 second time intervals to take readings on the glass syringe. I will keep doing this for approximately 3 and a half minutes.